African Indigenous Christianity in conversations with Celtic Christianity: Intercultural approach to Church
Introduction
In a fractured and fragmented environment, what does African diaspora Christianity have in common with British Christianity that can lead to intercultural collaborations?[i] Is there some wisdom we can learn from indigenous Christianity around intercultural collaborations? Also, is there a historical precedence we can draw from earlier forms of Christianity that can aid intercultural collaborations between African diasporic Christianity and British Christianity? This article argues that African Desert Fathers, that is early African Christians, and Celtic Christianity have some commonalities that could aid intercultural collaboration. One of these is monastic spirituality which was birthed in North Africa and, through pilgrimage and migration, was taken to Europe. Monastic spirituality later shaped and defined Celtic Christianity. This article explores the indigenous roots of both African Christianity and British Christianity and suggests a mutual approach in developing intercultural collaborations.
Clarification of Terms:
Intercultural churches: I am using the word intercultural in this article to define the emergence of an intercultural ecclesiology in Britain and other parts of Europe. Intercultural churches are churches that have embraced God’s vision and gift of ethnic and cultural diversity therefore intentionally creating spaces and contexts where different cultures, nationalities, ethnicities, generations, and classes integrate both mutually and meaningfully to create something new for the sake of God’s kingdom purposes. The key elements here are intentionality, integration, and mutual inconvenience.[ii]
“Intercultural churches are churches that have embraced God’s vision and gift of ethnic and cultural diversity ... The key elements here are intentionality, integration, and mutual inconvenience.”
Indigenous: I appreciate that the term indigenous is problematic in all sorts of ways such as using it to describe the identity and mission of Africans in a European context. Nevertheless, I am using the word here to describe an authentic expression of Christianity that speaks and addresses issues around the identity and witness of a given local people or community. This usage is more emphasised than using the term to describe ethnicity or nationality of a given local people in a particular region. In essence, my usage leans more towards an identity and justice elements of indigeneity.
African Christianity: An African Religion
Against the popular opinion that African Christianity is a white man’s religion, in reality it is best understood as an African religion. One of the first major problems we encounter in western European Christianity’s understanding and storytelling of African Christianity is the erroneous assumption that African Christianity developed as an extension of western European Christianity’s missionary impulse. This is true to some extent particularly with the modern European missionary movement which saw European Christianity exported to Africa, Asia, South America, and other parts of the globe.[iii] Mission in this period came to be understood as sending missionaries to the heathens or pagans who needed Christianity through commerce and civilization as developed by some missionaries and rejected by others. To aid this process of overseas mission we saw the development of Protestant mission societies, mission boards, and church prayer support for missionaries. In other words, mission became something that mission societies do as Christians either become missionaries or support the work of mission societies overseas.
The above transmission of the gospel describes the process of the notion of Christianity in Africa, that is, the idea that it was imported to Africans by western European missionaries. But this is different from an understanding of African Christianity which dates back to the New Testament times and Patristic period. North Africans such as the Ethiopian eunuch and Apollos (Acts 8:26-39; 18: 18-28) were some of the North African gentiles that were already participating in God’s mission in the New Testament causing African theologians such as Lamin Sanneh to argue that African Christianity and mission stretches back to New Testament times instead of the Modern period.[iv] We can therefore speak of an African Christianity that is authentic to Africans, instead of Christianity in Africa as a foreign concept and imposition.
“North Africans such as the Ethiopian eunuch and Apollos were some of the North African gentiles that were already participating in God’s mission in the New Testament ”
African Christianity was well established by the third century in the Hellenistic world with African Church Fathers on both side of the Latin Western church and Greek Eastern church, theological schools and Christian centres such as Alexandria in Egypt and Carthage in North Africa. Another defining feature of this African Christianity was monasticism which also later became a defining feature of Celtic Christianity. African Desert Fathers such as Antony (AD 251-356), Paul of Thebes (AD 227-341), and Pachomius (AD 290-346) laid the foundations of monastic spirituality. Antony developed the solitary monasticism which saw Christians living in the deserts of Egypt in individual cells in pursuit of God through prayer, fasting, solitude, meditation, and poverty. Pachomius on the other hand developed a coenobitic monasticism that saw Christians living in community through a common rule of life described as the Koinonia.
Monastic spirituality has several elements to it. Firstly, is that when Antony and Pachomius organised their monasteries, it was during Christian persecution therefore people withdrew into the desert not to avoid persecution as such but to live an uninterrupted consecration and devotion to God. In essence, it could be viewed as an act of enacting their own religious freedom in devotion to God. Secondly, was the Constantinian shift that saw the merging of Church and political power leading to the exodus of many Christians who saw the corruption and compromise of the church as problematic.[v] In essence, Christians who opted for monastic spirituality saw the need for the church to remain on the margins of society and not at the centre of power. Lastly, there are the defining features of monastic spirituality such as prayer, fasting, celibacy, meditation, solitude, community, manual work (including fishing, farming, copying manuscripts etc), relief to the poor, silence, and poverty.
Celtic Christianity: An African connection
Similar to the way the Desert Fathers developed an indigenous form of Christianity away from the powerful Christianity of Rome, Celtic Christianity in Britain flourished as an indigenous Christianity before the arrival of Augustine, later popularly known as Augustine of Canterbury (534-604). Augustine was the emissary of Pope Gregory (c.540-604) to the English people. Augustine introduced Roman Christianity into the British Isles through England.
“Celtic Christianity in Britain flourished as an indigenous Christianity before the arrival of Augustine of Canterbury (534-604)”
The flourishing of Celtic Christianity in Britain is usually associated with such figures as Finian of Clonard, Declan of Admore, Ninian of Whithorn, Columba of Iona, Patricius (or St Patrick), and St David, Bishop of Menevia to mention a few. Apart from the indigenous nature of ancient African Christianity and Celtic Christianity, another major commonality between the two is the development of the monasteries as centres of religious practices and mission. As Doye Agama commented, “Celtic and African Christianity were primarily linked through the practice of Monasticism which spread from the Coptic tradition of Antony in Egypt, to Gaul in modern France, and from there to Ireland.”[vi] In essence, there is a connection between Coptic Christianity from Egypt and Celtic Christianity.
Through migration in the form of pilgrimage and travels, African monastic Christianity and Celtic Christianity came into contact and enriched each other, or as Agama argued Celtic Christianity was influenced by Coptic Christianity, it appears that again through migratory patterns, the descendants of both are meeting once again! There is now a well-established African diaspora Christianity all over the UK. In addition, there is also now a renewal of Celtic Christianity which begs the question of what can be learnt from our ancestors? Does the international nature of monastic spirituality through African Desert Fathers and Celtic Christianity have something to teach us today around intercultural engagement? One commonality of ancient African Christianity and Celtic Christianity as already noted is monastic spirituality, therefore what monastic spiritual practices can inform and enrich our intercultural theology? But before exploring this, is there something to be said about the indigenous approach in developing an intercultural ecclesiology in Britain?
“Does the international nature of monastic spirituality through African Desert Fathers and Celtic Christianity have something to teach us today around intercultural engagement? What monastic spiritual practices can inform and enrich our intercultural theology? ”
Intercultural Ecclesiology: The Approach of Mutual Indigenous Christianity
One of the shifts taking place in Britain and other European countries is a search for clarity around national identities. One of the factors pushing for this is migration and the result of multiculturalism in Europe. For example, in the UK, we saw during the summer of 2024 what could be described as a race riot that saw migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers targeted through attacks. It is interesting to observe that these attacks took place in England and Northern Ireland and not in Scotland or Wales. My observation and reflection are that there is a dissatisfaction among the white British indigenes around migrants flooding the country. We have also seen recently in the UK the rise of right-wing politics with a new political party called Reform UK winning majority seats in recent local elections.[vii] One of the appeals of Reform UK and one of their key objectives is to tackle migration. The UK prime minister, Sir Keir Starmer, at an Immigration White Paper Press Conference recently remarked that the UK is becoming an island of strangers which has attracted several criticisms as people see it as a dangerous far-right rhetoric.[viii] I think rhetoric such as this raises lots of questions around what it means to be British and particularly English with many illegal and legal migrants in the UK and the development of a multicultural society. What is English identity in a postmodern multicultural multi-ethnic society?
To begin to address this question from a Christian perspective is the need to develop a theology of nationhood. This will mean developing a theology of nationhood that is not toxic nationalism that demonises migrants in the process of addressing national identity. Can the indigenous nature of Celtic Christianity contribute towards our sense of Britishness? The renewal of Celtic Christianity in different centres across the UK perhaps points to a quest for roots, renewal, and relevance. It seems to me that Celtic Christianity can certainly contribute towards an understanding and identity of what it means to be English, Irish, Welsh, and Scottish. It can revitalise and enrich British identity in a multicultural context. But the other side of this argument is that if there is the need to develop the theology of nationhood that affirms a sense of Britishness, there is also the need to develop the theology of migrant identities that affirms migrants in a contested multicultural society that too often demonises them. The multicultural context of Britain means that we cannot develop the theology of nationhood in isolation from migrant communities and identities. This is because from a Christian perspective, the New Testament gives us a notion of the God of the nations (See Matthew 28:18-20; Revelation 5:9;7:9). In essence, God is an international God.
“The multicultural context of Britain means that we cannot develop the theology of nationhood in isolation from migrant communities and identities”
To use African diaspora Christians as an example of migrants, can the indigenous nature of ancient African Christianity shape the development of the theology of migrant identities? This could affirm and develop African agency in postmodern multicultural British society. This will be akin to what I have developed elsewhere on African British Theology which is seeking to affirm African identity and mission in order that Africans might engage with multicultural Britain from a place of strength and not weakness.[ix] Ancient African Christianity can contribute significantly towards this by affirming the need to have authentic expressions of African Christianity. But how can this work in the context of churches seeking to develop intercultural models of church?
Perhaps, we start with an understanding that an intercultural church centres authentic integration and mutual learning and inconveniencing. If this is accepted as one of the key goals of an intercultural ecclesiology, it is possible within such a framework to ask simultaneous questions around how we develop an authentic expression of European identities as well as that of Africans in diaspora. Within this expression of intercultural ecclesiology, we centre on the theology of nationhood as well as the theology of migrant identities. This will definitely lead to mutual learning and inconveniencing because we will be using two or more distinctive indigenous principles. Perhaps in some contexts we move towards a mutual indigenous Christianity that enables the flourishing of native British Christians alongside that of the agency of African diaspora Christians. But what is crucial in the current context of stigmatising migrants that I am trying to articulate and address here, is that if we are going to see the authentic expressions of African diaspora Christians within intercultural churches, it is necessary to allow for the flourishing of indigenous expressions of African Christians that develops their agency in fighting against racism, discrimination, and xenophobia.
“if we are going to see the authentic expressions of African diaspora Christians within intercultural churches, it is necessary to allow for the flourishing of indigenous expressions of African Christians that develops their agency in fighting against racism, discrimination, and xenophobia.”
But returning to the key question of how monastic spiritual practice can inform and enrich our intercultural theology?
Monastic Spirituality and Intercultural Theology
Monastic spirituality has elements of interculturality because of the idea of pilgrimage embedded in its spirituality. Part of this is reflected in an international European audience seeking pilgrimage in the Holy land, Egypt, and Turkey searching for monastic spirituality. Conversely, some African hermits and monks travelled to Europe on pilgrimage as well. An example of an African abbot that travelled to Naples in Italy and later settled in Canterbury in England revitalising English worship through theology, liturgy, and worship was St Hadian (c. 635-710). How can this intercultural pilgrimage inform intercultural unity?
Firstly, there is the need to recognise that African diaspora Christianity has grown separately and distinctively from British Christianity due to racism, homogenous mission strategies, reverse mission, differences in theology, and ecclesial practices. Whilst they interact through some pockets of ecumenical institutions and unity movements such as Churches Together in England (CTE) and the Evangelical Alliance to name just two, they still operate at an arm’s length generally from each other. However, it is important to mention a few examples of collaborations. The first, interactions between African diaspora Christians and British Christians through an ecumenical institution was through the African Independent Churches (AICs) under what used to be called British Council of Churches (now Churches Together in Britain and Ireland). A key pioneer in this respect was the work of Father Oluwole Abiola, the founder of Aladura International Church. Father Oluwole Abiola served in different voluntary capacities but perhaps the most strategic was founding an ecumenical body for African churches in 1979 initially called the Council of African and Allied Churches. The name changed in 1986 to Council of African and Afro-Caribbean Churches (CAACC). Through this unity organisation, African churches were able to have representation at ecumenical gatherings.
Another example of an African church movement that has engaged in the ecumenical scene in Britain is the Apostolic Pastoral Congress (APC).[x] APC is an African Pentecostal network with connections to Coptic Christianity. Through its founder serving on key roles within the ecumenical networks, they have managed to engage with Churches Together in England and Churches Together in Britain and Ireland. Lastly, is the effort of the Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG) through the development of the role of ecumenical officers who represents RCCG at ecumenical gatherings. An aspect of this networking was to see Churches Together in England appoint Pastor Agu Irukwu, former national overseer of RCCG, as the second Pentecostal president of Churches Together in England. Despite these success stories, African diaspora Christianity and British Christianity, continue to grow separately so that the Celtic renewal of Christianity in Britain has gone unnoticed largely by African Christians.
“Despite these success stories, African diaspora Christianity and British Christianity, continue to grow separately so that the Celtic renewal of Christianity in Britain has gone unnoticed largely by African Christians.”
Consequentially, African diaspora Christianity has grown to be recognised as a church movement in its own right distinct from British Christianity. There is therefore the need for an intercultural engagement around the rich history of African Desert Fathers and Celtic Christianity that can intentionally bring together African diaspora Christians and British Christians. This will facilitate the necessity of collaborating together to understand the past in order to collaborate in the present and shape our future missional engagement together.
Lastly, and most crucially, is what I have already began to discuss in how indigenous forms of Christianity can deepen identity conversations both for native British and African British. African diaspora Christians can draw rich resources from the wells of African monasticism as an example of an expression of African indigenous Christianity. In essence, they can be confident that African Christianity is historic and has influenced British Christianity rather than the usual story of British Christianity influencing African Christianity. The indigenous British can also be affirmed in their search for national identity through a renewal of Celtic Christianity that speaks relevantly to English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh identities, histories, and mission.
Concluding reflections
In search of a precedence to aid intercultural collaborations between African diaspora Christianity and British Christianity, I have drawn inspiration from the richness of African indigenous Christianity and Celtic Christianity. One of such richness is monastic theology that was pioneered by African Desert Fathers and later Celtic Christianity. This article has therefore reflected on one of the lessons that monastic theology can offer us today in regard to intercultural unity. I have discussed interculturality, that is, the international nature of the pilgrimage of early monks, hermits, and Christians and its impact on other communities. I have also talked about the possibility of a mutual indigenous Christianity that can enable the flourishing of two or more Christian communities within our intercultural church frameworks. Intercultural ecclesiology becomes prophetic in an environment of polarisation with migration and multiculturalism viewed largely through a negative lens.
Israel Oluwole Olofinjana is Director of the One People Commission of the UK Evangelical Alliance and the founding director of the Centre for Missionaries from the Majority World
Endnotes
[i] Both the usage of African Diaspora Christianity and British Christianity describes a large diverse movement of Christians and churches with different ecclesial, theological, doctrinal and missional differences. For more on the typology of African Diaspora Christianity see Israel Olofinjana, World Christianity in Western Europe: Diasporic Identity, Narratives and Missiology (Oxford: Regnum Studies in Mission, 2020).
[ii] Israel Olofinjana, Usha Reifsnider and David Wise, Polyphonic God: Exploration of Intercultural Theology, Churches and Justice (London: SCM, 2025), p. 19.
[iii] Andrew F. Walls, The Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History (New York, Orbis Books, 2002).
[iv] Lamin Sanneh, West African Christianity (New York, Orbis Books, 1989). Also see Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion is Christianity? The Gospel Beyond the West (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing Co, 2003).
[v] For a fuller discussion on the Constantinian shift see my recent essay, Israel Olofinjana, Why did Jesus Speak Aramaic? A Biblical Theology for a Decolonised Mission, CMMW Essay, 2025. Available at: https://cmmw.org.uk/2025/04/11/why-did-jesus-speak-aramaic-a-biblical-theology-for-a-decolonised-mission/
[vi] Doye Agama, Ancient British Christianity: The African Influence (Manchester, Mind Strategies Ltd, 2020), p. 58.
[vii] Hannah Bunting, UK local elections delivered record-breaking fragmentation of the vote, The Conversation, 3rd of May 2025. Available at https://theconversation.com/uk-local-elections-delivered-record-breaking-fragmentation-of-the-vote-255841?utm_source=clipboard&utm_medium=bylinecopy_url_button
[viii] PM remarks at Immigration White Paper press conference 12th of May 2025. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-remarks-at-immigration-white-paper-press-conference-12-may-2025
[ix] Israel Olofinjana, African Voices: Towards African British Theologies (Carlie: Langham Global Library, 2017).
[x] For the history of Apostolic Pastoral Congress see Israel Olofinjana, Historical Development of Black Pentecostal Churches in Britain: A Case-Study of Apostolic Pastoral Congress, ANVIL: Journal of Theology and Mission, Vol 37, issues 3, 2022.